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Vol. 03, No. 09, September 2023
e-ISSN: 2807-8691 | p-ISSN: 2807-839X
IJSSR Page 1978
https://doi.org/10.46799/ijssr.v3i5.361
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The Public’s Perception of the Operating Standards of the
Jamaica Defense Force (JDF): A Quantitative Inquiry
Paul Andrew Bourne
1*
, Caroline McLean
2
, Vincent M.S. Peterkin
3
, James Fallah
4
, Clifton Foster
5
1
Department of Institutional Research, Northern Caribbean University, Mandeville, Manchester
2
Department of Nursing, Northern Caribbean University, Mandeville, Manchester,
3
College of Humanities, Behavioral and Social Sciences
4
Department of Dental Hygiene, Northern Caribbean, University, Mandeville, Manchester
5
Department of Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences, Northern Caribbean University,
Mandeville, Manchester, Jamaica
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
ABSTRACT
Jamaica Defense Force, Operating
Standards, JDF, Police Constabulary
Force
This study seeks to evaluate and explore the JDF from an
operational standpoint. The Operations Management Theory
(OMT) is used to examine whether the public’s perception of
the operating standards of the JDF has changed in the last
decade (2012 -2022). Methods and materials: This research
employed a national cross-sectional web-based descriptive
research design. Data collection occurred from July 13, 2022,
to August 11, 2022. Using the 2019 population of Jamaica
obtained from the Statistical Institute of Jamaica, with a 3.4%
margin of error and 95% confidence interval, the calculated
sample size is 831 resident Jamaicans. The response rate was
82.1% (n=762). Findings: The majority of the sampled
respondents were Jamaicans (97.1%, n=766), resided in
Jamaica (88.9%, n=700), females (59.6%, n=472), and resided
in Manchester (19.2%, 150). Of the Jamaicans (n=764), 89.3%
(n=682) of them reside in Jamaica compared to 10.7% (n=82)
reside outside. Furthermore, 89.3% of Jamaicans resided in
Jamaica compared to 77.3% of non-Jamaicans (χ2 (1) = 3.125,
P = 0.077). The findings indicate that people have lost respect
for the JDF in the last 6 months. Conclusion: Despite the
traditional military structure of the Jamaica Defense Force,
the organization has been deployed on the streets of Jamaica
by political administrations to curb and remedy the difficulty
of policing society, and this explains a justification for a public
assessment of this organization. The public is indecisive on
whether the Jamaica Defense Force is too frequently used
jointly with the Police Constabulary Force to police the streets
of Jamaica as well as being neutral on the overall operating
standards of the organization.
INTRODUCTION
National security and sovereignty are fundamental principles of all democratic societies (Naidu,
2002). The military plays a crucial part of the saveguarding the sovereignty, national security, and
democracy of a nation (North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 2008; Pereira, 2022; Public
Broadcasting Services (PBS), 1984). The military constitutes the air force, army, navy, space Paul
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IJSSR Page 1979
Andrew Bourne, Caroline McLean, Vincent M.S. Peterkin, James Fallah, Clifton Foster force, marine, and
coast guard, primarily protecting a state's interest from external armed threats. Historically, leaders
have also employed the military to secure political independence or sovereignty through warfare (Mark,
2009). According to Jordan et al. (2016), modern warfare explains a rationale for the military in nations,
including small states like Jamaica.
The military branch responsible for saveguarding Jamaica's national security and sovereignty is
the Jamaica Defense Force (JDF) (Ministry of Justice, 2014). The JDF constitutes the army, air wing, and
coast guard (The Ministry of National Security, nd). The JDF’s establishment dates back to 1962 when it
was formed from the West India Regiment (WIR), a British colonial regiment with roots tracing back to
1795 when the first West India Regiment was formed in the Windward Islands of the Eastern Caribbean
(Jamaica Defense Force, 2021a; National Army Museum, nd). The JDF was formed just a few days before
Jamaica became a sovereign independent State within the Commonwealth of Nations. Despite its
relatively young age, JDF has a long history of descent and traditions stemming from units raised in the
West Indies since the mid-seventeenth century, succinctly summarized in the current study.
Its original predecessor was the ancient Jamaica Militia of 1662, the immediate successor to Oliver
Cromwell's troops that had taken Jamaica from the Spaniards a mere seven years earlier. In 1694, during
one of two only invasions of Jamaica apart from the English invasion of 1655, the French landed a force
of over 1,400 men at Carlisle Bay in southern Clarendon (Jamaica Defence Force, nd). They were met by
militiamen, initially, only around 250, who alone – without support from any naval or regular army units
– repulsed the French with about 100 men killed or wounded, while French losses were between 150
and 350.
By revamping the Joint/Division headquarters and creating five Brigade (Bde) formations, the
JDF's current structure reflects the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) "standard combined
arms Division structure". The five (Bde) formations consist of four Regular Force (The Jamaica Regiment
(JCA Regt), the Maritime, Air and Cyber Command (MACC), the Support Brigade (Sp Bde) and the
Caribbean Military Academy (CMA)) in addition to an expanded Jamaica National Reserve (JNR).
Furthermore, these formations provide all "operational oversight and management of the Force's
capabilities in the land, air, sea and cyber domains". This structure aims to ensure "a greater focus by
the Chief of Defense Staff and the Joint staff on matters of strategic importance to the Force, both
nationally and regionally.
The Jamaica Defense Force participated in the US-led invasion of Grenada in October 1983
(Ganase, 2014; Ledgister, 2019) and has engaged in many national states of emergency in Jamaica and
performed joint police-military operations with the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF, nd). The Jamaican
government has been twinning the military with the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF) to address high
rates of crimes in society. Those joint military-police operations have led to frequent interaction
between military and Jamaicans citizen. The joint police- military operations have led to frequent
interactions between the military and Jamaican citizens. The question arises: How do the people view
this new reality? Do Jamaicans believe that in keeping with current realities, the JDF should be more
accountable to the people?
There is a change in the operational reality of the JDF. The new engagement, however, does not
have any empirical findings, particularly relating to the views of Jamaicans on the matter. The afore-
mentioned issue is the rationale for the current study. Hence, this study seeks to evaluate whether the
public's perception of the operating standards of the JDF has changed in the last decade (i.e., 2012-
2022). Furthermore, the current study also will assess Jamaicans' perception of the JDF accountability
to the citizenry and provide a framework of what Jamaicans perceive as the ideal JDF.
Understanding the public's perception of the operational standards of the JDF and whether this
perception has changed in the last decade will provide some context for understanding the effectiveness
or otherwise of the joint police-military operations. An important issue not examined in the literature is
the public's trust in the JDF and its possible erosion in the last decade. Given that the military provides
a service to society, so trust between military and the citizenry is crucial for operations to be successful.
Trust, long established in the literature, is paramount for social solidarity. Research trends indicate that
the interest in trust among customers has shifted to a more "relationship-based service orientation"
(Isaeva et al., 2020). Customers' trust is a cornerstone of the service industry.
Research demonstrates that the quality of service in the service industry is evident in the
customers' response. Customers tend to be loyal and supportive when they feel valued. The relationship
Inrernational Journal of Social Service and Research,
Paul Andrew Bourne, Caroline McLean, Vincent M.S. Peterkin, James Fallah, Clifton Foster
IJSSR Page 1980
between this industry and its customers should be based on trust, commitment, and collaboration,
resulting in mutual satisfaction among both parties (Isaeva et al., 2020). Since the military is a part of
the service industry and provides service to a country and its citizens, it is crucial to understand its
operational standards. To further evaluate and explore the JDF from an operational standpoint, the
Operations Management Theory (OMT) is used to examine whether the public's perception of the
operating standards of the JDF has changed in the last decade (i.e., 2012-2022).
Using a theory in this study provides a framework for understanding the relationship between
phenomena (Taylor, 1911; Walker et al., 2015). The focus of this study has practical relevance to the
current operating procedures of the JDF. The Operations Management Theory (OMT) helps to explain
whether a company's practice leads to efficiency in production or services. In general terms of
operations, management pertains to efficient management of "production process and business
operations". Operations management involves the efficient administration of a business’ resources
resources and meeting the customers' needs with the highest quality while maintaining "economic
viability" (MCclay, 2021).
The OMT addresses company strategies for operational and production interventions aims to
increase operations and production efficiency (Taylor, 1911). Furthermore, the key to these efficiencies
is utilizing resources to meet customer needs while minimizing costs. Another essential aspect is
leveraging labor and raw materials by efficiently using resources to produce goods and services. OMT
extends to modern operations management by promoting four fundamental theories: business process
redesign (BPR), six sigma, lean manufacturing, and reconfigurable manufacturing systems. According to
Taylor (1911) in "The Principles of Scientific Management", there are four specific elements: the
development of "a true science of management, scientific selection of an effective and efficient worker,
education and development of workers, and intimate cooperation between management and staff". OMT
serves as an appropriate theory to understand further the public's perception of the operating standards
of the JDF.
METHODS
A national cross-sectional web-based descriptive research design was employed for the current
study. The data was collected from July 13, 2022, to August 11, 2022. Using the 2019 population of
Jamaica (Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2019; i.e., 2,734,092), a 3.4% margin of error, and 95%
confidence interval; the calculated sample size is 831 resident Jamaicans. Of the prospective sampled
resident Jamaicans (n=831), the response rate was 82.1% (n=762). The research team collected data
from people across the 14 parishes of Jamaica (see Table 1). In addition, the researchers equally sought
the views of non-resident Jamaicans and individuals of other nationalities living in Jamaica at the time
of the data collection. The study garnered the opinions of 82 non-resident Jamaicans and 87 non-
Jamaicans who were living in the country during the data collection period. Social media platforms,
particularly Facebook, were used for data collection from these groups.
The instrument was developed and designed by Paul Andrew Bourne, with assistance from
Vincent M.S. Peterkin. It was a standardized instrument of fourteen (14) questions (i.e., 13 close-ended
items; one open-ended item, along with six demographic items – Annex 1). Researchers sent the
instrument to scholars from various field to provide feedback on the questionnaire's appropriateness,
relevance, and quality. The researchers then incorporated their feedback into the Survey, and then the
approved version of questionnaire was formatted using Survey Monkey.
Paul Andrew Bourne, Caroline McLean, Vincent M.S. Peterkin, James Fallah, Clifton Foster Seven
Likert-scale items were designed to evaluate the operating standards of the Jamaica Defense Force (JDF)
over five specific periods (i.e., ½ year, 1 year, 2 years, 5 years, and 10 years). The Likert scale ranged
from strongly disagree (coded as 1), disagree (coded as 2), neutral (coded as 3), agree (coded as 4), and
strongly agree (coded as 5). Researchers conducted reliability analysis for this study on the 7-item
questions, with a threshold value of 0.7 indicating good reliability. Negative questions were reverse
coded. Specifically, items 2 (i.e., the operating standards of the JDF have fallen), 4 (i.e., Members of the
JDF are too frequently used as police officers), 6 (i.e., I am afraid of soldiers), and 7 (i.e., I have lost respect
for the JDF because of how it operates with the public) were reverse-coded to ensure consistency in the
response scale. In addition, confirmatory factor analysis was used to determine the validity of the 7-item
Likert scale questions for assessing the operating standards of the JDF (see Annex 2). In addition, items
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that have a commonality of less than 0.5were excluded from construction of the operating standard
index.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Result
Table 1 presents the selected demographic characteristics of the sampled respondents. Of the
sampled respondents (n=792), the response rates were 99.9% (n=791) for gender, 99.6% (n=789) for
nationality, 99.4% (n=787) for resident Jamaican, and 98.3% (n=780) for parish of residence in Jamaica.
The findings revealed that the majority of the sampled respondents were Jamaicans (97.1%, n=766),
resided in Jamaica (88.9%, n=700), female (59.6%, n=472), and resided in Manchester (19.2%, n=150).
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Sampled Respondents, n=792
Details
Nationality
Jamaican
Other
Residential status
In Jamaica
Outside of Jamaica
Gender
Male
Female
Non-binary
Parish of residence
Kingston
St. Andrew
St. Thomas
Portland
St. Mary
St. Ann
Trelawny
St. James
Hanover
Westmoreland
St. Elizabeth
Manchester
Clarendon
St. Catherine
Not Applicable (i.e., outside of Jamaica)
Table 2 presents a cross-tabulation between the nationality and residential status of the
sampled respondents. Of the Jamaicans (n=764), 89.3% (n=682) resided in Jamaica compared
to 10.7% (n=82) who resided outside of Jamaica. Furthermore, 89.3% of Jamaicans resided in
Jamaica compared to 77.3% of non-Jamaicans (χ2 (1) = 3.125, P = 0.077).
Table 2
A cross-tabulation between Nationality and Resident Jamaican
Details
Nationality
Total
Jamaican % (n)
Other % (n)
% (N)
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Residential status
89.3 (682)
77.3 (17)
88.9 (699)
Inside Jamaica
10.7 (82)
22.7 (5)
11.1 (87)
Outside Jamaica
764
22
786
Of the sampled respondents, 19.1% (n=151) indicated that they have had run-ins (accused,
detained, or arrested) with the Jamaica Defense Force (JDF) and 12.2% (n=96) with the Jamaica
Constabulary Force (JCF)-(Table 3).
Table 3
Run-ins (being accused, detained, or arrested) with the Law in Jamaica, n=
Details
Total
%
(n)
Jamaica Defence Force (JDF)
Yes
19.1
(151)
No
80.9
(638)
Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF)
Yes
12.2
(96)
No
87.8
(694)
Table 4 presents cross-tabulation between those who have had run-ins (being accused, detained,
or arrested) with the JCF and Area of Residence in Jamaica. The findings revealed a significant statistical
relationship between the two aforementioned variables (χ2 (14) = 33.605, P = 0.002).
Table 4
A cross-Tabulation between Those Who Have Had Run-Ins (Being Accused, Detained, or
Arrested) with the JCF and Area of Residence in Jamaica
Details
Total, % (n)
Yes
No
% (n)
% (n)
% (n)
Parish of residence
Kingston
7.3 (11)
6.7 (42)
6.8 (53)
St. Andrew
5.3 (8)
6.2 (39)
6.0 (47)
St. Thomas
4.6 (7)
1.8 (11)
2.3 (18)
Portland
8.6 (13)
4.6 (29)
5.4 (42)
St. Mary
1.3 (2)
2.1 (13)
1.9 (15)
St. Ann
4.0 (6)
5.3 (33)
5.0 (39)
Trelawny
1.3 (2)
2.2 (14)
2.1 (16)
St. James
6.0 (9)
4.8 (30)
5.0 (39)
Hanover
5.3 (8)
2.9 (18)
3.3 (26)
Westmoreland
4.6 (7)
3.5 (22)
3.7 (29)
St. Elizabeth
6.0 (9)
15.5 (97)
13.6 (106)
Manchester
15.2 (23)
20.3 (127)
19.3 (150)
Clarendon
10.6 (16)
10.0 (63)
10.2 (79)
St. Catherine
7.3 (11)
9.3 (58)
8.9 (69)
Not Applicable (i.e., outside of Jamaica)
12.6 (18)
4.9 (31)
6.4 (50)
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Table 5 presents cross-tabulation between those who have had run-ins (being accused, detained,
or arrested) with the JDF and Area of Residence in Jamaica. The findings revealed a significant statistical
relationship between the two aforementioned variables (χ2 (14) = 48.0425, P < 0.001).
Table 5
A cross-tabulation between Those Who Have Had Run-Ins (being accused, detained, or
arrested) with the JDF and Area of Residence in Jamaica
Details
Total, %
(n)
% (n)
Yes
No
% (n)
% (n)
Parish of residence
Kingston
8.3 (8)
6.6 (45)
6.8 (53)
St. Andrew
7.3 (7)
5.9 (40)
6.0 (47)
St. Thomas
6.3 (6)
1.8 (12)
2.3 (18)
Portland
13.5 (13)
4.2 (29)
5.4 (42)
St. Mary
2.1 (2)
1.9 (13)
1.9 (15)
St. Ann
6.3 (6)
4.8 (33)
5.0 (39)
Trelawny
0.0 (0)
2.3 (16)
2.1 (16)
St. James
3.1 (3)
5.3 (36)
5.0 (39)
Hanover
4.2 (4)
3.2 (22)
3.3 (26)
Westmoreland
4.2 (4)
3.8 (26)
3.9 (30)
St. Elizabeth
5.2 (5)
14.9 (102)
13.7 (107)
Manchester
7.3 (7)
20.9 (143)
19.3 (150)
Clarendon
7.3 (7)
10.5 (72)
10.1 (79)
St. Catherine
12.5 (12)
8.2 (56)
8.7 (68)
Not Applicable (i.e., outside of Jamaica)
12.5 (12)
5.6 (38)
6.4 (50)
Total
96
683
779
Table 6 presents the descriptive statistics for people's perception of the operating standards of
the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) for the last 6 months. The seven-item scale is relatively good to assess
a single variable referred to as the operating standard of the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF, α = 0.667).
Generally, the sampled respondents disagreed that the operating standards of the JDF are high for the
last 6 months. Furthermore, the sampled respondents agreed that the operating standards of the JDF
have fallen in the last 6 months; but that people are still afraid of soldiers. The findings indicate that
people have lost respect for the JDF in the last 6 months. In addition, people disagreed that the JDF is
still relevant in today’s society.
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics for People’s Perception of The Operating Standards of the JDF (1/2
year)
Details
Mean
Std. Deviation
N
The JDF operates at a high standard
1.9276
0.42271
773
The operating standards of the JDF have
fallen
3.8900
0.43137
773
Generally, the members of the JDF operate
in a professional manner
1.9405
0.39958
773
Members of the JDF are too frequently used
as police officers
3.8680
0.42362
773
The JDF is still relevant in today’s society
2.3415
0.55970
773
I am afraid of soldiers
4.1578
0.54434
773
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I have lost respect for the JDF because of
how it operates with the public
3.9547
0.51583
773
Table 7 presents the descriptive statistics for people's perception of the operating standards of
the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) over the last 12 months. The seven-item scale is relatively good to
assess a single variable referred to as the operating standard of the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF, α =
0.751). Generally, the sampled respondents are neutral on the matter that the operating standards of
the JDF were high during the last 12 months. Furthermore, people agreed that the JDF was relevant one
year ago, and they are neutral on whether the JDF is too frequently used by governments.
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics for People’s Perception of the JDF (1 year)
Details
Mean
Std. Deviation
N
The JDF operates at a high standard
3.0616
1.10031
747
The operating standards of the JDF have fallen
2.7724
1.04671
747
Generally, the members of the JDF operate in a
professional manner
3.0335
1.08250
747
Members of the JDF are too frequently used as
police officers
2.4699
1.00139
747
The JDF is still relevant in today’s society
4.0147
.95953
747
I am afraid of soldiers
3.5609
1.12489
747
I have lost respect for the JDF because of how
it operates with the public
2.9933
1.18467
747
Table 8 presents the descriptive statistics for people's perception of the operating standards of
the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) 2 years ago. The seven-item scale is relatively good to assess a single
variable referred to as the operating standard of the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF, α = 0.744). Generally,
the sampled respondents are neutral on the matter that the operating standards of the JDF were high
during the last 24 months. The sampled respondents agreed that the JDF was relevant 2 years ago and
they are neutral of the professional behaviour of operating JDF members on the streets.
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics for People’s Perception of the JDF (2 years)
Details
Mean
Std. Deviation
N
The JDF operates at a high standard
3.1116
1.09919
726
The operating standards of the JDF have
fallen
2.8664
1.06482
726
Generally, the members of the JDF operate
in a professional manner
3.1364
1.09261
726
Members of the JDF are too frequently used
as police officers
2.5124
1.03283
726
The JDF is still relevant in today’s society
3.9945
.96845
726
I am afraid of soldiers
3.5234
1.15017
726
I have lost respect for the JDF because of
how it operates with the public
2.9821
1.19468
726
Table 9 presents the descriptive statistics for people's perception of the operating standards of
the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) 5 years ago. The seven-item scale is relatively good to assess a single
variable referred to as the operating standard of the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF, α = 0.744). Generally,
the sampled respondents are neutral on the matter that the operating standards of the JDF were high
about 5 years ago. The sampled respondents have a neutral perspective on 1. The operating standards
of the JDF are high, 2. The operating standards of the JDF have fallen 3. The members of the JDF are too
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frequently used as police officers, and 4. They have lost respect for the JDF. However, on average, they
agreed that the JDF is relevant in today’s society.
Table 9
Descriptive Statistics for People’s Perception of the JDF (5 years)
Mean
Std.
Deviation
N
The JDF operates at a high standard
3.3121
1.09086
721
The operating standards of the JDF have fallen
2.9307
1.04518
721
Generally, the members of the JDF operate in a
professional manner
3.2691
1.06706
721
Members of the JDF are too frequently used as police
officers
2.6519
1.05647
721
The JDF is still relevant in today’s society
4.0444
.92390
721
I am afraid of soldiers
3.5201
1.14985
721
I have lost respect for the JDF because of how it
operates with the public
3.0458
1.16278
721
Table 10 presents the descriptive statistics for people's perception of the operating standards of
the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) 10 years ago. The seven-item scale is relatively good to assess a single
variable referred to as the operating standard of the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF, α = 0.744). Generally,
the sampled respondents agreed on the matter that the operating standards of the JDF were high about
10 years ago. Ten years ago, people believe that the JDF operated at a high standard, relevant to the
society, members operated at a high professional standard, and they were afraid of soldiers.
Table 10
Descriptive Statistics for People’s Perception of the JDF (10 years)
Mean
Std.
Deviation
N
The JDF operates at a high standard
3.5381
1.05093
721
The operating standards of the JDF have fallen
3.2011
1.07098
721
Generally, the members of the JDF operate in a
professional manner
3.4632
1.01740
721
Members of the JDF are too frequently used as
police officers
3.1429
1.10321
721
The JDF is still relevant in today’s society
4.1248
.90275
721
I am afraid of soldiers
3.4854
1.20191
721
I have lost respect for the JDF because of how it
operates with the public
3.1331
1.20831
721
Table 11 presents the overall summative descriptive statistics on people’s perception of the
operating standards of the JDF over 5 specific periods. The findings revealed that generally, people are
neutral on the overall operating standards of the JDF.
Table 11
Summative Descriptive Statistics on People’s Perception of Overall Operating
Standards of the JDF
Details
Mean
Std. Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
N
6 months ago
3.15
0.26
2.14
4.00
791
1 year ago
3.33
0.36
1.50
4.43
787
2 years ago
3.36
0.41
1.83
5.00
787
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5 years ago
3.39
0.41
1.71
5.00
788
10 years ago
3.36
0.41
2.00
5.00
786
The public’s perception of the overall operating standards of the JDF by the resident status of
sample respondents is presented in Table 12. Using an independent sample t-test, the findings revealed
that irrespective of the public being residents of Jamaica or outside resident-Jamaican, there was no
significant statistical difference in their perception of the overall operating standards of the Jamaica
Defence Force (JDF). Jamaicans have a neutral perception of the overall operating standards of the JDF.
This denotes that Jamaicans are indecisive about the standards of the members of the JDF who operate
on the streets.
Table 12
Summative Descriptive Statistics on People’s Perception of the Operating Standards of the JDF
by Resident Status
Resident status
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
6 months ago
Jamaica
699
3.1612
.25819
.00977
Outside of Jamaica
87
3.1054
.29513
.03164
1 year ago
Jamaica
695
3.3327
.35784
.01357
Outside of Jamaica
87
3.3205
.39681
.04254
2 years ago
Jamaica
696
3.3629
.39711
.01505
Outside of Jamaica
87
3.3433
.47439
.05086
5 years ago
Jamaica
696
3.3958
.40396
.01531
Outside of Jamaica
87
3.3859
.49053
.05259
10 years ago
Jamaica
695
3.3615
.40256
.01527
Outside of Jamaica
87
3.3415
.43483
.04662
The P-value for each of the descriptive statistics by period is greater than 0.05
Using an Independent sample t-test, a significant statistical difference emerged between
those who had a run-in with the JDF and those who did not on the overall public’s perception
of the operating standards of the JDF (P < 0.05). Those who had a run-in with the JDF indicated
a low level of neutrality on the overall operating standards of the JDF (Table 13).
Table 13
Summative Descriptive Statistics on People’s Perception of the Operating Standards of the JDF
by Resident Status
Run-in
with JDF
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
t value, P
value
6 months ago
Yes
96
3.0372
.30901
.03154
-4.718, <0.001
No
693
3.1703
.25140
.00955
1 year ago
Yes
95
3.2404
.41286
.04236
-2.301, =0.012
No
690
3.3426
.35250
.01342
2 years ago
Yes
95
3.2326
.42445
.04355
-3.147, 0.001
No
690
3.3778
.40026
.01524
5 years ago
Yes
95
3.2539
.40029
.04107
-3.613, < 0.001
No
691
3.4127
.41239
.01569
10 years ago
Yes
95
3.2752
.35008
.03592
-2.419,0.008
No
689
3.3700
.41179
.01569
Inrernational Journal of Social Service and Research https://ijssr.ridwaninstitute.co.id/
IJSSR Page 1987
Descriptive statistics on the public's perception of selected operating standards of the JDF (i.e.,
high operating standards, operating standards of the JDF have fallen, and members of the JDF operate
professionally) are presented in Table 14. The public believes that the operating standards of the JDF
have fallen over time as well as the professionalism of members who operate on the streets of Jamaica.
In addition, on average, the public agreed that the operating standards of the JDF have fallen.
Furthermore, the public indicated that they have lost respect for the JDF because of how it operates with
the public in the last 6 months, and outside of this time, they were indecisive on the matter.
Table 14
Descriptive Statistics on Selected Overall Issues on the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF)
The JDF operates
at a high standard
The operating
standards of the
JDF have fallen
Generally, the
members of the JDF
operate in a
professional manner
I have lost respect
for the JDF
because of how it
operates with the
public
1/2 year
1.9 ±0.4
3.9±0.4
1.9±0.4
2.0±0.5
1 year
3.1±1.1
2.8±1.0
3.0±1.1
3.0±1.2
2 years
3.1±1.1
2.9±1.1
3.1±1.1
3.0±1.2
5 years
3.3±1.1
2.9±1.1
3.3±1.1
3.0±1.2
10 years
3.5±1.1
3.2±1.1
3.5±1.0
3.1±1.2
Figure 1 depicts the sampled respondents’ views on whether the Jamaica Defence Force
(JDF) is accountable to the people of Jamaica. Of the sampled respondents (n=791), the
response rate to the aforementioned issue is 94.56 % (n=748). Of those who responded to the
question (i.e., Do you believe that the JDF is accountable to the people of Jamaica?), 72 in every
100 of them said yes.
Figure 1. The Jamaica Defence Force is accountable to the people of Jamaica
Table 15 presents a cross-tabulation of ‘do you believe that the JDF is accountable to the people
of Jamaica?’ and the gender of the sampled respondents. The chi-square revealed that there is no
significant statistical association between the two aforementioned variables (χ2 (2) = 0.129, P = 0.937).
Inrernational Journal of Social Service and Research,
Paul Andrew Bourne, Caroline McLean, Vincent M.S. Peterkin, James Fallah, Clifton Foster
IJSSR Page 1988
This means that the public's gender does not change its perspective on whether the Jamaica Defence
Force (JDF) is accountable to the people of Jamaica.
Table 15
A cross-YTabulation of ‘do you believe that the JDF is accountable to the people of
Jamaica?’ and the gender of the sampled respondents
Do you believe that the JDF is
accountable to the people of
Jamaica?
Gender
Total
Male
Female
Non-
binay
Yes
% (n)
% (n)
% (n)
% (n)
72.5 (216)
71.8 (318)
66.7 (4)
72.0 (538)
No
27.5 (82)
28.2 (125)
33.3 (2)
28.0 (209)
Total
298
443
6
747
Table 16 presents a cross-tabulation of ‘do you believe that the JDF is accountable to the people
of Jamaica?’ and the nationality of the sampled respondents. The chi-square revealed that there is no
significant statistical association between the two aforementioned variables (χ2 (2) = 0.811, P = 0.368).
This denotes that the public's nationality does not change its perspective on whether the Jamaica
Defence Force (JDF) is accountable to the people of Jamaica.
Table 16
A cross-tabulation of ‘do You Believe that the JDF is Accountable to the People of
Jamaica?’ and the Nationality of the Sampled Respondents
Do you believe that the JDF is
accountable to the people of
Jamaica?
Jamaica
Total
Jamaican
Otherwise
Yes
% (n)
% (n)
% (n)
% (n)
72.4 (524)
63.6 (14)
72.1 (538)
No
27.5 (82)
36.4 (8)
7.9 (208)
Total
724
22
746
Table 17 presents a cross-tabulation of ‘do you believe that the JDF is accountable to the people
of Jamaica?’ the residential status (i.e., in Jamaica, Outside of Jamaica). The chi-square revealed that
there is no significant statistical association between the two aforementioned variables (χ2 (2) = 0.067,
P = 0.795). This denotes that the public's residential status does not change its perspective on whether
the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is accountable to the people of Jamaica.
Table 17
A cross-tabulation of ‘do You Believe that the JDF is Accountable to the People of
Jamaica?’ and the Residential status of the Sampled Respondents
Do you believe that the JDF is
accountable to the people of
Jamaica?
Jamaica
Total
In Jamaica
Outside of
Jamaica
Yes
% (n)
% (n)
% (n)
72.1 (478)
70.7 (58)
71.9 (536)
No
27.9 (185)
29.3 (24)
28.1 (209)
Inrernational Journal of Social Service and Research https://ijssr.ridwaninstitute.co.id/
IJSSR Page 1989
Total
663
82
745
Figure 2 denotes a bar graph for the Public’s Perception of how the ‘The Jamaica Defence
Force can bolster respect among the Public’. The findings revealed that the majority of the
public believes that the Jamaica Defence Force can bolster respect among the residents of
Jamaica by ‘having an independent entity investigate incidents relating to its members (64.3%,
n= 509)’, ‘responding quicker to issues following incidents involving members of the JDF
(64.0%, n=507)’, ‘engaging in community activities such as building schools, roads, indigent
houses etc. (61.4%, n=486) and so forth.
Figure 2: The Public’s Perception of how the ‘The JDF can bolster respect among the Public’
DISCUSSION
The current study employed a national cross-sectional web-based descriptive research design
to explore the public’s perception of the operating standards of the Jamaica Defence Force (JDF). The
responsibility for Jamaica’s national security and sovereignty is an important task that requires serious
commitment from the JDF and other stakeholders (Government of Jamaica, and; Ministry of National
Security, nd). The Jamaican government’s responsibility for national security accounts for the
deployment of the Jamaica Defense Force in joint military operations with the Jamaica Constabulary
Force because of the violent crime situation in the nation (Britannica, nd), and as such interacting with
the public sometimes regularly. However, with that commitment comes an ongoing requirement of
sustainable trust predicated on consistent operations and management during the performance of
duties. Jamaicans’ trust in the JDF can be a strategic asset that could provide a competitive advantage
through operation effectiveness, inter-collaboration with other public service organizations, public
loyalty, dedication, cooperation, and healthy exchange relationships.
According to Britannica (nd), “The Jamaican police have been criticized for a high rate of
extrajudicial killings” and so Jamaicans had a lower degree of trust for the police compared to the army
(Powell, Bourne, and Waller, 2007). Hence, the security of a nation is also based on the public’s trust in
the entities that are responsible for the security and protection of the populace (Fontaine, et al., 2017).
It is difficult, therefore, for many crimes to be solved because of the gulf between the citizenry and the
security forces (Horn, 2021; Fontaine, et al., 2017; Girardi, 2021) as would the case when the army
becomes a part of the crime-fighting solution in society. Previous research shows that the success of
organizations is connected to a strong level of customer trust (Fukuyama, 1995). Fukuyama (1995)
noted that trust is critical in human relations and that without it; there will be no social solidarity.
Therefore, the idea of distrust/trust in the service industry is complex and fragile; but explains the
difficulty to address crime in societies (Goldsmith, 2005; Ohana, 2010; The Guardian, 2019; Pérez-
Vincent, S. & Scartascini, 2021).
Inrernational Journal of Social Service and Research,
Paul Andrew Bourne, Caroline McLean, Vincent M.S. Peterkin, James Fallah, Clifton Foster
IJSSR Page 1990
The Service industry researchers contend that effective theoretical frameworks that aid in
further clarity are vital to better understanding this involved phenomenon (Flores-Macías & Zarkin,
2022; Hasbrouck, 2019; Hines et al., 2015). For this study, the OMT served as the theoretical framework
for understanding the JDF’s strategies for operational and production interventions as perceived by the
Jamaican public. Any service-oriented organization must focus on dual trust. Dual trust pertains to
internal trust, which exists among employees and employers, while external trust exists among the
organization and the public. Trust for the military profession is a critical component of its existence, not
just among military personnel but also among the masses. A deduction that can be made from the
current study is that different publics are losing their trust in the Jamaica Defense Force.
Establishing trust among the public requires continued engagement and demonstrations of
behaviors that uphold the stated mission and values of the organization. Qualities such as discipline,
military expertise and stewardship are embedded into the military's daily operations and modelled
starting with the organization’s leadership. Although research shows continued support for the military
in many countries and their standard operating procedures in many countries, other countries are less
trusting. The history of relationships among employees and customers, organization milieu and
operations influence the public’s perception of organizations in the service industry. Studies show that
not only is it essential to establish trust, but more importantly, is the sustainability of that trust over
time. This study sought to ascertain the public’s perception of the JDF over a decade.
The perception of the Jamaican public toward the JDF’s operational effectiveness, including its
“policing” activities and interactions with the general public, has declined. This decline occurred over
the past decade, especially within the past six months. A more precise understanding of the JDF’s
operations and effectiveness is critical to address among the Jamaican public. Combined with effective
management and implementation of strategies to meet the intended mission and vision, the JDF should
consider image rebranding to address the decline in public perception and trust. This research also
highlights that the Jamaican public deems the JDF relevant and essential to the nation’s security
operations. However, JDF leadership should revisit the involvement with local policing duties, as it may
be an ineffective use of the JDF’s time beyond emergencies. The following conclusion and
recommendations hint at the possible direction for future rebranding, public relations and operational
enhancements for the JDF leadership and its general stakeholders, which includes the Jamaican public.
CONCLUSION
The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is a combined military of Jamaica (i.e., infantry Regiment and
Reserve Corps, Air Wing, Coast Guard, and Engineering Unit) designed based on the British military
model. The JDF was not designed as a paramilitary organization and so would support the Jamaica
Constabulary Force (JCF) in its policing operations. Despite the traditional military structure of the
Jamaica Defence Force, the organization has been deployed on the streets of Jamaica by political
administrations to curb and remedy the difficulty of policing society (Jamaica Defence Force, 2021b),
and this explains a justification for a public assessment of this organization.
The public is indecisive on whether the Jamaica Defence Force is too frequently used jointly with
the Police Constabulary Force to police the streets of Jamaica as well as neutral on the overall operating
standards of the organization. The various public indicated that members of the Jamaica Defence Force,
who operate on the streets, have lowered their professionalism and high standards in the last 6 months.
As such, they believe that this can be bolstered by 1) ‘having an independent entity investigate incidents
relating to its members (64.3%, n= 509)’, ‘responding quicker to issues following incidents involving
members of the JDF (64.0%, n=507)’, and ‘engaging in community activities such as building schools,
roads, indigent houses etc. (61.4%, n=486).
RECOMMENDATION
Relationships among the military, leaders and citizens is an organic and dynamic phenomenon
that evolves. These relationships may change in stability based on the current state of society.
Understanding the operational purpose of the military and its support for government and civilians is
an essential step in military function and important long term. Therefore, further studies are warranted
to understand the operations of the JDF and whether those operations change over time. Further
exploration as to why the public’s perception further declined over the last six months is warranted.
Inrernational Journal of Social Service and Research https://ijssr.ridwaninstitute.co.id/
IJSSR Page 1991
Jamaican leadership should evaluate the current extension of military personnel to duties that overlap
with the police and indicate whether this is the most efficient use of military involvement long term.
While occasional inter-security collaboration is essential in emergencies, every day the use of military
personnel to supplement the police force should not become the norm.
This part consists of two (2) sub-parts: the article's conclusion and suggestions or
recommendations from the research. Conclude the article critically and logically based on the research
findings. Please be careful in generalizing the results. The authors should also state the research
limitation in these parts. Generally, the conclusion should explain how the research has moved the body
of scientific knowledge forward. In suggestion, please describe the author's recommendations for
further studies regarding the author's research implication.
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